Pope Innocent XIII (1655-1724)

Innocent XIII is often classified among the minor popes of the 18th century: a reign of less than three years, no council, no major dogmatic bull, no resounding canonization. This image is accurate but conceals the true significance of the man and his pontificate.

First, he marks the continuity of Roman governance following the long reign of Clement XI: the same firmness against Jansenism, the same demand for obedience from missionaries in Asia, the same concern to keep the Holy See distant from the passions of the great crowns. Innocent XIII was not an innovator; he was a guardian.

Second, he marks the apogee and limits of the diplomatic game of a papacy now deprived of military power. By investing Emperor Charles VI with the Kingdom of Naples, Innocent XIII reluctantly consecrated the temporal decline of the Holy See already underway under his predecessor—while preserving the legal form of pontifical suzerainty.

Finally, he marks one of the tensest episodes in the history of relations between Rome and the Society of Jesus. His distrust of the Jesuits, born in Portugal and fueled by their resistance to the decrees on the Chinese rites, foreshadows the great crisis that would lead, half a century later, to the suppression of the order. In this way, the figure raises the recurring question of the modern pontificate: what can a pope without an army do, and how does he command obedience from a Church that has become global?

The table below summarizes the key reference sources on which this article is based, from major encyclopedic entries to studies on the 1721 conclave.

The Conti House, from Segni to Poli

Michelangelo dei Conti was born on May 13, 1655, in Poli, a small lordship in the Prenestine Mountains east of Rome.^[8][9] He belonged to the Conti family, one of the oldest and most prestigious of the Roman nobility, dukes of Poli and Guadagnolo. His father was Carlo II, Duke of Poli, and his mother Isabella, from the Muti family.^[10][11]

The prestige of this family mainly rests on its papal past. Before Michelangelo, the Conti — or Conti di Segni — had already given the Church three great medieval popes: Innocent III (1198–1216), the most powerful pontiff of medieval Christendom; Gregory IX (1227–1241), pope of the Liber Extra and founder of the papal Inquisition; and Alexander IV (1254–1261).^[12][13][14] To inherit such a name was no small burden: throughout his life, Michelangelo dei Conti bore the awareness of an illustrious lineage, which he honored precisely by choosing his papal name.

Education: The Roman College and Law

Raised for service to the Church, the young Conti received a solid education. He first studied in Ancona, then was sent to Rome to the Roman College, run by the Jesuits, before attending the Sapienza University (La Sapienza).^[15] There he earned a double doctorate in canon law and civil law, the classical qualification for future high officials of the Curia.

This education explains his profile: not a combative theologian nor a mystic, but a jurist and administrator, shaped for diplomacy and governance of souls through law. He was a man of the forum, chancelleries, and nunciatures, more than of the pulpit or cloister.

The Diplomat: Governorships, Switzerland, and Portugal

Conti’s career followed the royal path of curial prelates. A Referendary of the Apostolic Signature from 1691, he then administered several provinces of the Papal States: he was Governor of the Campagna and Maritime Province, then Governor of Viterbo.^[16] There he earned a reputation as a competent and moderate administrator.

In 1695, he was promoted Titular Archbishop of Tarsus and consecrated bishop, opening the way to major diplomatic missions. He was immediately sent as Apostolic Nuncio to Switzerland, residing in Lucerne, where he defended Catholic interests in a country divided between Catholic and Reformed cantons.^[17][18]

“He was titular archbishop of Tarsus and nuncio at Lucerne, then nuncio at Lisbon.” — from The Catholic Encyclopedia, “Pope Innocent XIII”^[19]

Then came his most important mission: the nunciature in Lisbon, which he held from about 1698 to 1706.^[20][21] It was in Portugal, home to a powerful Jesuit missionary empire, that—according to several sources—his lasting distrust of the Society of Jesus was forged, a distrust that would weigh heavily on his pontificate.^[22]

Cardinal of Clement XI, Bishop of Osimo and Viterbo

Conti’s merit as nuncio was recognized by Clement XI, who created him cardinal-priest on June 7, 1706.^[23][24] Conti then took charge of two dioceses: he was Bishop of Osimo from 1709, then Bishop of Viterbo and Tuscania from 1712 to 1719.^[25] He also served for a time as Camerlengo of the Sacred College (1716–1717), a sign of his peers’ confidence.

At the time of Clement XI’s death in March 1721, Cardinal Conti was thus a sixty-five-year-old man, experienced, respected, and conciliatory, but without particular brilliance or overt ambition. It was precisely this moderate profile that, after weeks of deadlock, made him the compromise candidate.

The Death of Clement XI and the Opening of the Conclave

Clement XI passed away on March 19, 1721, after more than twenty years of reign. The conclave convened to elect his successor opened on March 31, 1721, in a tense atmosphere: Europe was just emerging from the War of the Spanish Succession, and the great powers — France, Philip V’s Spain, and Charles VI’s Empire — sought to influence the choice of the new pope.^[26] Only twenty-seven cardinals initially entered the conclave, their number rising to about forty over the following days.

Fabrizio Paolucci Blocked by the Jus Exclusivae

The favorite in the early ballots was Cardinal Fabrizio Paolucci, Secretary of State under Clement XI and candidate of the “zelanti” cardinals who championed the Church’s independence. His election seemed imminent: in one ballot, he fell short by only three votes.^[27]

It was then that one of the last major uses of the right of exclusion (jus exclusivae) occurred, by which Catholic sovereigns could exclude a candidate they disliked. On April 2, 1721, Cardinal Michael Friedrich von Althann, the only cardinal present from the imperial crown, officially declared the exclusion of Paolucci on behalf of Emperor Charles VI.^[28] The effect was immediate and dramatic:

“On the morning of April 2, not a single vote was cast for the cardinal secretary of state.” — from the study of the 1721 conclave^[29]

This imperial power play, considered scandalous by many, prolonged the deadlock for several more weeks.

Election at the Seventy-Fifth Ballot (May 8, 1721)

Deprived of their favorite, the cardinals had to seek a compromise candidate. The name of Cardinal Conti gradually emerged, precisely because he was acceptable to all factions: prudent, diplomatic, and without declared enmity toward the great crowns.^[30][31] After more than five weeks and seventy-four unsuccessful ballots, an agreement was finally reached.

On May 8, 1721, at the seventy-fifth ballot, Michelangelo dei Conti was elected pope with fifty-four votes out of fifty-five.^[32] The Catholic Encyclopedia soberly summarizes this arduous election:

“After the death of Clement XI, he was elected pope in a stormy conclave on May 8, 1721.” — The Catholic Encyclopedia, “Pope Innocent XIII”^[33]

The Name Innocent, a Tribute to Innocent III

The new pope immediately chose a name heavy with meaning. He took the name Innocent XIII, in memory of his illustrious ancestor Innocent III, the greatest pope of the Conti family.^[34][35]

“In memory of Innocent III, to whose lineage he belonged, he chose the name Innocent XIII.” — The Catholic Encyclopedia, “Pope Innocent XIII”^[36]

This choice was not merely a gesture of familial piety: it proclaimed a claim to continuity with the golden age of the medieval papacy, at a time when the Holy See, militarily diminished, could govern mainly through moral authority. Innocent XIII was crowned on May 18, 1721, by Cardinal Protodeacon Benedetto Pamphili.^[37]

Illness at the Heart of the Reign

The most defining feature of Innocent XIII’s pontificate was perhaps the humblest: his ruined health. The pope suffered from an old hernia and kidney stones (the “stone”), ailments that severely handicapped him and forced long periods of inactivity.^[38] This infirmity, more than the brevity of his reign, explains the limited and defensive character of his governance: Innocent XIII ruled as a sick man, compelled to delegate and delay.

Aware of his declining strength, he governed with restraint, relying on a small circle of close associates. He held two consistories and created three cardinals, including his own brother, Bernardo Maria dei Conti.^[39] The promotion of a relative was criticized as a discreet return of nepotism, which Innocent XII had solemnly banned in 1692; yet Innocent XIII’s practice remained modest compared to the excesses of the previous century.

Naples Granted as a Fief to Charles VI (1722)

The major diplomatic act of the pontificate concerned the Kingdom of Naples. At the end of the War of the Spanish Succession, Naples had come under the rule of Emperor Charles VI. However, the kingdom was theoretically a fief of the Holy See, whose kings were supposed to receive investiture from the pope. In 1722, Innocent XIII resolved to invest Emperor Charles VI with sovereignty over the Kingdom of Naples.^[40][41]

“The following year, he invested Emperor Charles VI of the Holy Roman Empire with sovereignty over the Kingdom of Naples.” — Encyclopædia Britannica, “Innocent XIII”^[42]

The act was double-edged. On one hand, it acknowledged the de facto loss of all pontifical influence over southern Italy and tied Rome to the House of Habsburg. On the other, it preserved the legal form of suzerainty: by requiring the emperor to seek investiture, the pope reminded that, at least on paper, Naples still belonged to Saint Peter. This was the diplomacy of a Holy See reduced to defending principles rather than territories.

Parma and Piacenza: A Protest Without Effect

The same impotence was evident elsewhere. When the great powers disposed of the duchies of Parma and Piacenza—also pontifical fiefs—without regard for Rome’s rights, Innocent XIII protested, but his protest remained ineffective.^[43][44] The fate of these principalities was now settled among European courts, with the pope reduced to a legally aggrieved spectator. Once again, the pontificate illustrates the temporal decline of the papacy in the age of great states.

The most criticized episode of the reign was the promotion of Guillaume Dubois to the cardinalate in 1721. Former tutor to Philippe d’Orléans and later prime minister to the Regent of France, Dubois was a skilled statesman but of notoriously scandalous morals, whose ecclesiastical vocation was merely a career tool.^[45][46]

Pressed by the French court, which made it a condition for good relations, Innocent XIII yielded and granted the red hat to this unworthy figure, while exhorting him—in vain—to change his ways.^[47] The concession shocked even the pope’s inner circle: it seemed a humiliating compromise, extracted by Realpolitik. It reveals the narrow margin of a pope forced to accommodate the powers to preserve what was essential.

In matters of faith, Innocent XIII was a firm continuator. The major issue inherited from his predecessor was the reception of the bull Unigenitus Dei Filius (1713), by which Clement XI condemned one hundred and one Jansenist propositions of the Oratorian Pasquier Quesnel.^[48] In France, part of the episcopate—the Appellants—still refused to submit, appealing to a future council.

Innocent XIII held the Roman line without wavering. He demanded submission to Unigenitus and rejected the request of the French bishops who sought leniency.^[49][50]

“He insisted on submission to the constitution Unigenitus (1713) of Clement XI.” — according to Encyclopedia.com, “Innocent XIII, Pope”^[51]

This refusal prolonged, without resolving, the Gallican crisis that poisoned the Church in France. The bull Unigenitus and the Jansenist doctrine it targeted are treated in detail in the article Predestination and Jansenism; Innocent XIII added no new dogmatic text but ensured its continued enforcement.

Distrust Born in Portugal

Another major doctrinal and missionary issue was the Chinese rites. Should Christians in China be allowed to honor Confucius and their ancestors according to traditional rites, as the Jesuits advocated, or should these rites be seen as idolatry incompatible with the faith, as ruled by Clement XI? This complex matter is treated in detail in the article The Chinese Rites Controversy.

Innocent XIII inherited his predecessor’s strict position and added a personal hostility toward the Society of Jesus, which several sources trace back to his nunciature in Lisbon.^[52][53] Upon learning that Jesuit missionaries were not complying with Roman decrees, he reportedly considered suppressing the order—anticipating by fifty years the decision of Pope Clement XIV.

The Brief Forbidding the Reception of Novices

His response took a concrete and severe form. According to several accounts, Innocent XIII forbade the Jesuits from receiving novices unless they satisfied him within three years regarding their obedience to the decrees on the rites.^[54]

“He forbade the Jesuits from receiving novices if, within three years, they did not satisfy him regarding their obedience.” — from Encyclopedia.com, “Innocent XIII, Pope”^[55]

Britannica confirms the pope’s firmness, who “commanded” the Society to obey Clement XI’s 1713 bull forbidding these rites.^[56] The pope’s premature death left this threat unresolved, but it clearly foreshadowed the growing disfavour the Jesuits would suffer in the eighteenth century.

Support for the Stuart Pretender

Faithful to the Roman tradition of supporting Catholic sovereigns, Innocent XIII backed the cause of the Stuart family in England. He recognized James Stuart, the “Old Pretender” (James III to the Jacobites), as the legitimate king of England, granted him an annual pension, and promised subsidies—up to one hundred thousand ducats—on the express condition of the restoration of the Catholic religion in the kingdom.^[57][58]

“He recognized James, the Old Pretender, as king of England and promised him subsidies on the condition of the restoration of Roman Catholicism in England.” — from Encyclopædia Britannica, “Innocent XIII”^[59]

This support, consistent with the policy of his predecessors, had no practical effect: the Jacobite cause was already compromised, and Protestant England was beyond Roman influence.

Malta Against the Barbary Pirates

More effective was his aid to the Order of Malta, the bulwark of Christendom in the Mediterranean. Innocent XIII supported the Hospitallers in their fight against the Barbary pirates of North Africa, continuing the papacy’s traditional role as protector of Christian defense against Muslim corsairs.^[60]

Despite the brevity of his reign, Innocent XIII presided over several notable liturgical acts. He notably beatified John of Nepomuk, the martyr of the seal of confession (31 May 1721), along with other servants of God.^[61] Most importantly, on 25 April 1722, he proclaimed Saint Isidore of Seville Doctor of the Church, honoring one of the greatest scholars of late Christian Antiquity, an encyclopedist and father of medieval culture.^[62]

This act, modest in appearance, fits the coherence of the man: a learned and legalistic pope, heir to a tradition of Catholic erudition, keen to highlight the great doctors of the faith in the face of the doctrinal confusions of his time.

Weakened by illness, Innocent XIII died in Rome on 7 March 1724, at nearly sixty-nine years old, after a reign of two years and ten months.^[63][64] He was buried in the grottos of St. Peter’s Basilica. The subsequent conclave elected a Dominican friar, Cardinal Orsini, who took the name Benedict XIII.

The Record of a Quiet Reign

Innocent XIII left neither major doctrinal texts, nor a council, nor sweeping reforms. Weakened by illness and the brevity of his pontificate, he was above all a prudent steward of the legacy received from Clement XI. On the temporal level, his reign confirmed the decline of the Holy See: resigned investiture of Naples, vain protest over Parma and Piacenza, humiliating concession of the cardinal’s hat to Dubois.

But on the doctrinal level, his record is one of unwavering fidelity: upholding Unigenitus against Gallican pressures, demanding obedience from Asian missionaries, firmness toward a Society of Jesus he judged disobedient. Weak before kings, he was steadfast before error—in the direct line of his predecessor.

Why Innocent XIII Matters Today

Innocent XIII matters first as a witness to the temporal decline of the papacy on the eve of the Enlightenment: his pontificate shows a Holy See reduced to defending legal principles where it once reigned. He also matters for the history of relations between Rome and the Jesuits: his distrust and threat of suppression foreshadowed the great crisis culminating in 1773. Finally, he counts as a figure of doctrinal continuity, a faithful guardian of the condemnation of Jansenism and the discipline of the Chinese rites. Caught in an era that left him neither time nor means to act, Innocent XIII held, where he could, the line of his predecessors with quiet firmness.

• Pope Clement XI (1649–1721), predecessor whose policies Innocent XIII faithfully continued
• Pope Benedict XIII, Dominican successor elected at the 1724 conclave
• Pope Innocent XII (1615–1700), the pope who abolished papal nepotism in 1692
• The Chinese Rites controversy, a missionary issue that set Innocent XIII against the Jesuits
• Predestination and Jansenism, to understand the stakes of the Unigenitus bull upheld by Innocent XIII
• Pope Clement XIV, who suppressed the Society of Jesus in 1773, half a century after Innocent XIII’s threats